Armed Campaigns and Political Integration (1983–2003)
Hezbollah is a Shia political and military organization based in Lebanon that is anti-Israeli and anti-American. It began as a loose collection of underground terrorist cells and evolved into a hybrid organization woven into the structure of Lebanese society and politics. It provides social services and actively participates in politics, while also engaging in domestic and international terrorist attacks and regional military operations.[1]
When Lebanon became independent in 1943, Shiites were economically and politically marginalized compared to Sunni Muslims and Christians.[2] After the Lebanese civil war broke out in 1975, several Islamic revivalist movements took root in Lebanon, fueled by mounting Shia discontent. The Amal movement – from which Hezbollah eventually split –became the most prominent Shia militia during the civil war, active particularly in the southern, Shia-dominated region of Lebanon.[3]
In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon to expel the Palestine Liberation Organization from southern Lebanon.[4] Some Shiites initially supported Israeli forces, but opinion turned against Israel as civilian deaths mounted.[5] The United States brokered a settlement providing for the withdrawal of the PLO. American troops were deployed to Lebanon as part of a multinational peacekeeping force established to oversee the withdrawal and ensure the safety of Palestinian civilians left in Lebanon. However, in September 1982, the Israeli Defense Force was complicit in allowing a Christian Lebanese militia to massacre at least 800 Palestinian and Lebanese civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps.[6]
Subsequently, several Shiite Amal movement leaders broke away to form a new organization, Islamic Amal, espousing a more militant response to the Israeli occupation of the south.[7] The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) was essential to its formation. Several thousand IRGC members were dispatched to support Islamic Amal, along with financial backing.[8]
This precursor to Hezbollah first attracted international attention with the 1983 bombings of the U.S. Embassy as well as American and French military barracks in Beirut, deployed as part of the multinational peacekeeping force.[9] In September 1984, Hezbollah, with Iranian support, carried out another suicide car bombing targeting the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut, killing 23 people.[10] Following the attacks, the peacekeeping force was withdrawn in 1984.
Before Israel’s partial withdrawal in 1985, Hezbollah primarily targeted Israeli forces, carrying out twelve suicide attacks and other assaults that solidified its reputation as the most prominent resistance actor. [11] From 1982 to 1992, Hezbollah-linked groups abducted nearly one hundred foreign citizens, mostly Americans, French, and British nationals. The kidnappings of CIA station chief William Buckley and U.S. Marine Lt. Colonel William Richard Higgins, both later killed in captivity, were particularly significant events.[12] By 1985, Israeli forces had withdrawn to a security zone along the border (with full withdrawal in 2000).[13]
In 1985, Islamic Amal published a manifesto under the new name of Hezbollah (“Party of God”). The precise organizational relationship between Islamic Amal and Hezbollah remains unclear. [14] In the 1985 manifesto, Hezbollah rejected Israel’s right to exist and opposed Western influence in Lebanon and the wider Middle East. The group identified internal enemies like the Christian Phalange Party and promoted the establishment of an Islamic state in Lebanon..[15] Hezbollah, aligned with Iran, competed with the Syria-aligned Amal movement for leadership of the Shia community, leading to clashes between 1985 and 1989. [16]
From 1985 through the 1990s, Hezbollah maintained an active global presence. Its External Security Organization (the Islamic Jihad Organization or the External Services Organization) was responsible for planning and executing attacks outside Lebanon. In 1985, for example, branch members hijacked TWA Flight 847 from Cairo to Athens. The hostages were held for weeks, and Robert Dean Stethem, a U.S. Navy diver, was killed to draw attention to Lebanese prisoners held in Israel.[17] After Israeli released 300 Lebanese prisoners, the remaining hostages were freed.[18] In March 1992, Hezbollah operatives bombed the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina, killing twenty-nine and wounding hundreds. In July 1994, the group was accused of bombing the Argentine-Israeli Mutual Association, which killed nearly 100 and wounded more than 200. Hezbollah denied responsibility.[19] In June 1996, the group assisted in bombing the American Khobar Towers military housing complex in Saudi Arabia, killing 19 U.S. Air Force personnel.[20]
The 1989 Taif Agreement, which ended the Lebanese Civil War, opened the door for Hezbollah to officially join the Lebanese political process and ensured Syrian domination over Lebanon. The transition was favored both by Hezbollah Secretary-General Sayyid Abbas al Musawi and by Iranian president Hashimi Rafsanjani.[21] Hezbollah competed in its first Lebanese national elections in 1992 and won eight seats in Parliament. Hezbollah also participated in national elections in 1996, 2000, 2005, 2009, and 2018.
As a political party, Hezbollah was often at odds with the Lebanese government. After the 2005 elections, Hezbollah opposed the U.S.-and Saudi Arabia–backed government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. In December 2006, Hezbollah led a sit-in aimed at forcing the government to resign, resulting in 18 months of political deadlock.[22] Tensions erupted again in May 2008 after the government moved to shut down Hezbollah’s private telecommunications network. Violence broke out in Beirut between Hezbollah and government supporters. The deadlock ended later that year when the Arab League brokered the Doha Agreement which granted Hezbollah veto power in the government.[23]
Hezbollah continued attacks against Israeli forces.[24] Israel departed southern Lebanon in 2000, a move widely attributed to Hezbollah that increased the group’s popularity.[25] Following this, Hezbollah sought the release of Lebanese citizens held in Israeli prisons. In July 2006, Hezbollah crossed into Israel, kidnapped two Israeli soldiers and killed eight Israeli soldiers.[26] The incident triggered the 34-day war with Israel. Lebanon’s air and sea routes were blockaded; Beirut’s airport was struck. It led to the evacuation of around 15,000 American citizens, one of the largest U.S. government non-combatant evacuations at the time.[27] The war resulted in around 1,300 Lebanese deaths, over 4,400 Lebanese wounded, and 165 Israeli deaths.[28] Supporters lauded Hezbollah’s supposed victory against Israel, while critics accused it of instigating an unnecessary and highly destructive war.[29]
Expanding Regional Role (2003–2023)
After the American invasion of Iraq in 2003, Hezbollah established Unit 3800. According to U.S. intelligence, Unit 3800 trained, armed, and funded Iraqi Shia militant groups that targeted U.S. forces in Iraq.[30] The Hezbollah-sponsored groups carried out several attacks in Iraq, including the 2007 Karbala Joint Coordination Center attack that killed five Americans.[31] In 2014, Hezbollah aided Iraqi groups to fight against the Islamic State after its declaration of a caliphate.[32] Starting in 2014, Hezbollah also sent militants and resources to support Houthi insurgents in the Yemeni Civil War. Initially, Hezbollah focused on transferring funds and training insurgents[33] As the war progressed, Hezbollah began sending militants to the region.[34]
In 2011, Hezbollah sent military advisors to aid the al-Assad regime in Syria’s civil war. In June 2013, Hezbollah officials confirmed that combat forces had been deployed to fight alongside Assad’s troops, Russian forces, and other allied Shia organizations.[35] Hezbollah intervened to defend the Assad regime as a strategic ally against Israel and to maintain access to Syrian territory for transporting Iranian missile parts and weapons.[36].
Hezbollah forces in Syria initially concentrated in the city of al-Qusayr on the border of Syria and Lebanon. By 2014, Hezbollah expanded operations other parts of Syria, from Aleppo in the north to Daraa in the south. [37] Hezbollah played a critical role in the Aleppo Offensive in late 2016, assisting Assad forces in retaking control.[38] Hezbollah also trained and organized Syrian Shia militias and recruited thousands of foreign fighters.[39] Bolstered by external aid, the Assad regime regained some of its influence in Syria, and it reasserted control over many Shia militias by 2017.[40] Throughout the war, Hezbollah fought alongside both Iranian and Russian troops as well as other pro-Assad forces. Its opponents were the Islamic State, Jabhat al-Nusra, Ahrar al-Sham, and elements of the Free Syrian Army.[41] After 2018, fighting subsided, and Hezbollah withdrew much of its personnel. However, Hezbollah troops remained near Damascus, in Deir al-Zour, and throughout southern Syria.
Despite their effectiveness, Hezbollah suffered more casualties in Syria than during Israel’s eighteen-year occupation of Lebanon, including the deaths of senior commanders Abu Jaafar and Ali Fayyad.[42] Available estimates indicate that 7,000–10,000 fighters were deployed, with roughly 1,600–2,000 killed and 5,000–6,000 wounded.[43] In addition, Hezbollah’s reputation suffered. Growing unpopularity may have been a reason for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), the Arab League, and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) to designate Hezbollah as a terrorist organization in spring 2016.[44]
Nevertheless, the war in Syria greatly increased Hezbollah’s fighting capabilities and weapons stockpile. The group received significant amounts of high-tech military equipment and weaponry from Russia and Iran.[45] Hezbollah militants also gained experience fighting other non-state actors, such as the Islamic State, and operating in dense urban environments.[46] Additionally, reports suggest that the group’s recruiting capabilities in Lebanon expanded significantly as a result of participation in the civil war.[47]
During the Syrian civil war, Hezbollah’s attention was largely diverted from Israel. In 2018, Assad forces regained control of the Syrian-administered portion of the Golan Heights, a region bordering Israeli-occupied territory. Hezbollah then began establishing cells and militias and stationing weapons in the area.[48] It also recruited hundreds of local Syrians to form new militias.[49] Hezbollah began scaling back its involvement in Syria around 2019. The decision was driven by growing domestic opposition in Lebanon and by the Assad regime’s consolidation of control over much of the country. [50]
After 2019, Hezbollah faced financial constraints. U.S. sanctions on Iran – Hezbollah’s primary patron –reduced Iran’s ability to finance the group. Hezbollah shut many offices around the country and cut the pay of its employees and militants.[51] According to the U.S. State Department, Iran provided Hezbollah with an estimated $700 million annually. In 2020, this figure declined to approximately $280 million per year due to the COVID-19 pandemic, reduced oil revenues, and U.S. sanctions on Iran.[52]
The U.S. killing of Qassem Soleimani in 2020 reshaped Hezbollah’s role in Iraq. Soleimani was the commander of the Quds Force who coordinated IRGC foreign operations. Iran assigned this role to Hezbollah after his death.[53] Hezbollah then expanded its training of Iraqi militias and provided strategic guidance for attacks on U.S. and coalition forces, including strikes on bases and convoys.[54] Hezbollah also increased its political influence over pro-Iranian factions within the Iraqi government. Along with Kataib Hezbollah, it was a key member of the Iranian sponsored Axis of Resistance.
October 7 and Aftermath (2023–Present)
On 7 October 2023, Hamas launched a large-scale surprise attack on Israel, killing more than 1,200 people, primarily civilians, and taking over 240 hostages into Gaza.[55] The following day, Hezbollah opened a second front by firing rockets, mortars, and artillery shells at Israeli military positions in the Shebaa Farms area and along the border. The group described it as “solidarity with the Palestinians.[56] On 11 October, the United States announced the deployment of two aircraft carriers to the eastern Mediterranean to deter foreign intervention and warned Hezbollah against joining the war.[57] Israel responded to Hezbollah’s early cross-border fire with artillery strikes on positions in southern Lebanon. Hezbollah carried out near-daily attacks on northern communities.[58]
Between October and November 2023, hostilities intensified along the border, displacing tens of thousands on both sides.[59][60] On 3 November 2023, Hezbollah Secretary-General Nasrallah confirmed the group’s involvement and emphasized that Hamas had not informed Hezbollah before the 7 October attacks and that the groups had not planned a joint strategy. Nasrallah described Hezbollah’s role as supportive rather than an effort to expand the war into a full-scale regional conflict. He confirmed that 57 Hezbollah fighters had been killed in the first 26 days of fighting.[61]
Throughout November 2023, Hezbollah employed heavier weaponry, including Grad rockets, large-scale salvos, and multiple anti-tank missile strikes. Its attacks struck Israeli military positions as well as civilian areas such as Kiryat Shmona, Manara, and Moshav Dovev. The attacks injured at least 7 Israeli soldiers and more than 20 civilians. Israeli retaliatory airstrikes and drone operations targeted Hezbollah cells and infrastructure in southern Lebanon.[62] On 22 November Israeli strikes killed 5 Hezbollah fighters, including the son of a Hezbollah parliamentarian and a commander in the group’s elite Radwan Force. The following day, Hezbollah carried out one of its largest assaults since the outbreak of the war, firing more than 80 rockets, mortars, and missiles. The barrage included a salvo of 35 rockets and another 48 reportedly aimed at an Israeli base near Safed.[63]
On 24 November, Israel and Hamas entered a temporary truce to exchange hostages for Palestinian prisoners.[64] Hezbollah announced that it would respect the ceasefire.[65] Military operations on both sides halted. The truce collapsed on 30 November. Exchanges of fire soon resumed along the border.[66] Violence intensified in 2024, fueling concerns of a wider regional war.[67] In January 2024, Nasrallah called for border delimitation talks with Israel, but he made the negotiations conditional on a Gaza ceasefire.[68]
Between January and July 2024, Hezbollah lost more than 400 fighters and at least 15 mid-and senior-level commanders in Israeli airstrikes across Lebanon and Syria. The assaults eliminated commanders who oversaw rocket and missile operations, coastal defense, and field units in areas such as Tyre and Jouaiyya, which marked one of the heaviest leadership losses since the 2006 war.[69]
Between June and August 2024, U.S. Special Envoy Amos Hochstein mediated between Lebanon and Israel to ease cross-border tensions.[70] In July, Nasrallah reiterated that Hezbollah would halt attacks on Israel only if a ceasefire were reached in Gaza.[71]
On 27 July, a missile hit the Druze town of Majdal Shams in the Golan Heights, killing twelve children. Israel attributed the attack to Hezbollah.[72] Hezbollah acknowledged firing rockets at a nearby Israeli base but denied responsibility.[73] On 30 July, an Israel airstrike in Beirut killed Fuad Shukr, a senior Hezbollah commander accused of involvement in the Majdal Shams attack.[74] On 25 August, Hezbollah retaliated by launching rockets and drones at Israel in one of the heaviest barrages since October 2023. [75]
In mid-September 2024, thousands of pagers and walkie-talkies used by Hezbollah members and supporters exploded almost simultaneously across Lebanon and Syria.[76] The shock was devastating: Nasrallah described the incident as a “major blow” and an act of war.[77] Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant stated that the attack marked the beginning of a “new phase” of the conflict.[78] The pager blasts injured nearly 3,000 people, including Iran’s ambassador to Lebanon.[79] The following day, a second wave targeted walkie-talkies, killing about 30 more people and wounding hundreds at funerals for earlier victims.[80] According to Hezbollah, about 1,500 of its fighters were incapacitated.[81] The blasts disrupted Hezbollah’s chain of command. Days later, Hezbollah responded with rocket fire into northern Israel. (In November, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu acknowledged responsibility for the operation, later referred to as Operation Grim Beeper.[82])
On 25 September, the United States, Qatar, the European Union, and other international actors proposed a 21-day ceasefire.[83] Apparently Nasrallah privately indicated support for the cease-fire to the Lebanese foreign minister.[84] Days later, on 27 September, Nasrallah was killed in an Israeli airstrike in Beirut, which was a major blow to both Hezbollah and Iran.[85]
On 1 October 2024, the Israeli military invaded southern Lebanon. Israel described it as “limited, localized and targeted raids” aimed at securing northern communities and enabling displaced residents to return home.[86] Hours later, Iran fired at least 180 ballistic missiles at Israel, citing the assassination of Hassan Nasrallah as justification.[87] Hezbollah continued firing rockets and anti-tank weapons at advancing units and launching barrages deeper into Israel, including in the city of Haifa. On 3 October, Hashem Safieddine, who was considered Nasrallah’s likely successor, was also killed.[88]
In late October, Israeli officials claimed that most of their military objectives had been achieved, setting conditions for negotiations.[89] On 29 October, Hezbollah’s leadership council elected Naim Qassem, long-time deputy secretary-general, as new Secretary-General.[90]
A 60-day ceasefire was proposed in late October.[91] On 26 November, President Biden announced that Israel and Hezbollah had reached an agreement: Hezbollah agreed to move its fighters north of the Litani River and reverse its earlier commitment to continue fighting if Israel pursued its war in Gaza.[92] The ceasefire has largely held, although both sides have accused each other of violations. held. Prime Minister Najib Mikati called for unity in Lebanon, expressing hope for a “new page” after the ceasefire.[93] In January 2025, Lebanon’s parliament elected Joseph Aoun as president, ending a two-year leadership vacuum.[94] Aoun pledged to extend Lebanese state authority throughout the south, signaling his intention to confront Hezbollah’s weapons.[95] On 13 January, Aoun appointed Nawaf Salam as prime minister, a decision that Hezbollah opposed. Middle East experts interpreted Salam’s appointment as a sign of the group’s weakened position following the death of Nasrallah.[96] In April, Aoun declared that weapons in Lebanon would remain only in the hands of the state. He added that Hezbollah’s disarmament would proceed through dialogue rather than force.[97] A senior Hezbollah official indicated a willingness to discuss disarmament with Aoun if Israel withdrew from five southern hilltops and ended cross-border strikes.[98] Hezbollah’s limited cooperation was reportedly motivated by the need to preserve domestic political support and avoid harsher international sanctions.[99]
During the Gaza war, Hezbollah suffered some of the heaviest casualties in its history. An internal estimate indicated that the group might have lost up to 4,000 fighters during fourteen months of hostilities.[100] Lebanese authorities reported that around 3,800 people had been killed, without distinguishing between combatants and civilians.[101] As of December, the IDF estimated that roughly 3,800 Hezbollah fighters were killed after 8 October 2023. The number included 2,672 during the invasion of Lebanon and 44 after the ceasefire.[102] The attrition of Hezbollah’s senior leadership left major gaps in its command structure.[103]
Israeli airstrikes destroyed and damaged bases, tunnels, weapons depots, and fortifications across southern Lebanon. Strikes on the Syrian border disrupted Hezbollah’s arms supply.[104] The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) reported confiscating more than 155,000 weapons and pieces of military equipment. These included about 12,000 explosive devices, drones, and other explosive weapons. Israel also captured more than 13,000 anti-tank missile launchers, rockets, and anti-aircraft missiles. IDF said that over 121,000 communication devices, computers, electronic equipment, and documents were also captured.[105]
On 27 November 2024, Syrian opposition forces launched a major offensive against government-held territories, exploiting Hezbollah’s absence and its heavy losses in Lebanon.[106] Although Hezbollah initially said it would not deploy fighters, it later sent “supervising forces” in an unsuccessful attempt to halt the offensive.[107] In December 2024, the fall of President Assad’s regime dealt a significant blow to Hezbollah.[108] According to a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, the loss of this route hindered the group’s ability to replenish its missile stockpiles and maintain its military infrastructure in Lebanon.[109] It also cut off access to the wartime economy, which had supplemented Hezbollah’s finances through smuggling and cross-border trade.[110] Israeli strikes on Iranian missile facilities in Damascus further degraded the group’s military capacity.[111] The new Syrian leadership, aligned with Sunni Islamist factions, blocked Iranian transfers.[112] Ali Fayyad, a senior Hezbollah official, acknowledged that Assad’s fall represented a “major strategic loss.” It significantly weakened Hezbollah’s position as Iran’s frontline ally against Israel.[113]
In July 2025, Qassem warned that Hezbollah would not surrender its weapons or accept normalization with Israel. He accused the United States and Arab states of pressuring Lebanon’s leadership to disarm the group.[114] Lebanon’s Parliament Speaker Nabih Berri criticized the United States’ push to disarm Hezbollah and instead called for a national dialogue to decide the fate of its weapons.[115] Hezbollah continues to project resilience; however, its material and organizational losses cast doubt on its long-term viability as both a regional proxy and a dominant actor in Lebanon.[116] Hezbollah’s current weapons holdings are uncertain. Its rearmament to the same extent is hindered by the breakdown of its regional backing from Iran and Syria. Since 2024, U.S. maximum-pressure sanctions, Israeli strikes, nationwide unrest against the Islamic Republic’s government, and ongoing fiscal shortfalls constrain Iran’s ability to restore Hezbollah’s financial and operational capacity. The fall of the Assad regime in late 2024 further severed a key supply route used by Hezbollah to smuggle money and weapons.[117]
On September 19, 2025, Secretary-General Naim Qassem called on Saudi Arabia to “turn a new page” to form a unified front against Israel, amid growing pressure on Lebanon to disarm Hezbollah.[118] Hezbollah has publicly committed to the ceasefire—not a formal signatory. Its fighters began withdrawing from southern Lebanon. Supported by a UN observer force, the Lebanese Army reported removing 90 percent of Hezbollah’s weapons from southern Lebanon. Hezbollah did not obstruct Lebanese Army efforts to locate and confiscate its weapons caches. However, it insists that the disarmament provisions apply only to southern Lebanon.[119]
On November 23, Ali Tabatabai, Hezbollah’s chief of staff, was killed in an Israeli strike on southern Beirut, marking a post-ceasefire operation against a senior Hezbollah figure.[120] On November 28, Naim Qassem stated that Hezbollah retained the right to respond to Israel’s killing of its top military commander, but the group has shown only limited retaliation. [121]On December 23, 2025, Lebanon rejected Israeli claims that a Lebanese soldier killed in an airstrike near Sidon had links to Hezbollah. Israel stated that the strike targeted militants involved in rebuilding Hezbollah’s infrastructure. A Hezbollah official denied any link between the group and members of the Lebanese army.[122]
Israeli and U.S. officials stated that Hezbollah is rebuilding military capabilities that threaten Israel’s security and undermine the ceasefire. Hezbollah denies rebuilding its military infrastructure in southern Lebanon and states that it remains committed to the ceasefire, noting that it has not fired on Israel since the agreement took effect.[123] On January 8, 2026, Lebanon announced the completion of the first phase of the disarmament of Hezbollah and other armed groups in southern Lebanon. Israel responded that the progress was “far from sufficient,” citing renewed concerns that the ceasefire could unravel.[124] On January 14, 2026, a senior Hezbollah official warned that extending disarmament efforts beyond southern Lebanon could trigger chaos or civil war and refused to relinquish its arsenal elsewhere.[125] Progress outside the south remains uncertain. Progress outside the south remains uncertain. The Lebanese Army has proceeded cautiously to contain tensions and allow Lebanese leaders more time to decide on the group’s weapons in other regions of the country. [126]
